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What Is Evidence of Intellectual Prowess in Reading

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Evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. Information technology is ordinarily understood every bit an indication that the supported proposition is true. What role evidence plays and how information technology is conceived varies from field to field.

In epistemology, bear witness is what justifies beliefs or what makes information technology rational to hold a certain doxastic attitude. For example, a perceptual experience of a tree may human activity as evidence that justifies the belief that there is a tree. In this role, evidence is ordinarily understood as a individual mental state. Important topics in this field include the questions of what the nature of these mental states is, for example, whether they have to be propositional, and whether misleading mental states can still authorize as evidence. Other fields, including the sciences and the constabulary, tend to emphasize more the public nature of evidence (for example, scientists tend to focus on how the data used during statistical inference are generated).[1] In philosophy of scientific discipline, testify is understood every bit that which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses. Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for instance, are seen equally evidence that confirms Einstein's theory of general relativity. In order to play the part of neutral arbiter between competing theories, it is of import that scientific evidence is public and uncontroversial, like appreciable physical objects or events, so that the proponents of the different theories can agree on what the evidence is. This is ensured by post-obit the scientific method and tends to atomic number 82 to an emerging scientific consensus through the gradual aggregating of evidence. Two issues for the scientific conception of prove are the problem of underdetermination, i.e. that the available testify may support competing theories every bit well, and theory-ladenness, i.e. that what some scientists consider the evidence to be may already involve various theoretical assumptions not shared past other scientists. It is frequently held that at that place are two kinds of evidence: intellectual evidence or what is self-axiomatic and empirical testify or evidence accessible through the senses.

In guild for something to act as evidence for a hypothesis, it has to stand in the right relation to it. In philosophy, this is referred to as the "evidential relation" and in that location are competing theories well-nigh what this relation has to be similar. Probabilistic approaches agree that something counts every bit evidence if it increases the probability of the supported hypothesis. According to hypothetico-deductivism, evidence consists in observational consequences of the hypothesis. The positive-instance approach states that an observation sentence is evidence for a universal hypothesis if the sentence describes a positive example of this hypothesis. The evidential relation can occur in various degrees of forcefulness. These degrees range from direct proof of the truth of a hypothesis to weak evidence that is merely consistent with the hypothesis but does non dominion out other, competing hypotheses, every bit in coexisting testify.

In police, rules of show govern the types of evidence that are admissible in a legal proceeding. Types of legal prove include testimony, documentary evidence, and physical evidence.[2] The parts of a legal case that are not in controversy are known, in general, as the "facts of the example." Beyond whatsoever facts that are undisputed, a judge or jury is usually tasked with existence a trier of fact for the other problems of a case. Show and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed, some of which may be adamant by the legal brunt of proof relevant to the case. Evidence in certain cases (e.g. upper-case letter crimes) must exist more compelling than in other situations (eastward.m. small civil disputes), which drastically affects the quality and quantity of evidence necessary to make up one's mind a case.

Nature of evidence [edit]

Evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. Evidence plays a primal office in epistemology and in the philosophy of science. Reference to evidence is made in many different fields, like in science, in the legal system, in history, in journalism and in everyday discourse.[3] [four] [v] A variety of unlike attempts have been made to conceptualize the nature of evidence. These attempts often go along by starting with intuitions from i field or in relation to one theoretical function played by show and proceed to generalize these intuitions, leading to a universal definition of evidence.[3] [iv] [6]

One important intuition is that testify is what justifies beliefs. This line of thought is usually followed in epistemology and tends to explain evidence in terms of private mental states, for example, as experiences, other beliefs or knowledge. This is closely related to the idea that how rational someone is, is adamant by how they reply to evidence.[iii] [four] [seven] [viii] [9] Another intuition, which is more ascendant in the philosophy of science, focuses on evidence equally that which confirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories.[ten] On this view, it is essential that evidence is public so that different scientists can share the aforementioned bear witness. This leaves publicly appreciable phenomena like physical objects and events as the best candidates for evidence, unlike private mental states.[3] [4] [nine] One problem with these approaches is that the resulting definitions of bear witness, both inside a field and betwixt fields, vary a lot and are incompatible with each other. For case, it is non clear what a bloody knife and a perceptual experience have in common when both are treated every bit evidence in dissimilar disciplines. This suggests that at that place is no unitary concept respective to the dissimilar theoretical roles ascribed to bear witness, i.e. that nosotros do not always mean the same thing when we talk of evidence.[three] [4] [vi]

Important theorists of evidence include Bertrand Russell, Willard Van Orman Quine, the logical positivists, Timothy Williamson, Earl Conee and Richard Feldman.[four] Russell, Quine and the logical positivists belong to the empiricist tradition and hold that testify consists in sense data, stimulation of one'due south sensory receptors and observation statements, respectively.[11] Co-ordinate to Williamson, all and just knowledge found evidence.[12] Conee and Feldman agree that but i'south current mental states should be considered evidence.[six]

In epistemology [edit]

The guiding intuition within epistemology concerning the role of evidence is that it is what justifies behavior.[3] [4] For example, Phoebe's auditory experience of the music justifies her belief that the speakers are on. Prove has to be possessed past the believer in order to play this function.[6] So Phoebe'south own experiences can justify her own beliefs but non someone else's beliefs. Some philosophers hold that evidence possession is restricted to conscious mental states, for case, to sense data.[4] This view has the implausible consequence that many of uncomplicated everyday-beliefs would exist unjustified. The more common view is that all kinds of mental states, including stored beliefs that are currently unconscious, can act as testify.[half dozen] [thirteen] It is sometimes argued that the possession of a mental state capable of justifying another is not sufficient for the justification to happen. The idea backside this line of thought is that justified belief has to be connected to or grounded in the mental state acting as its evidence.[6] [14] So Phoebe's belief that the speakers are on is not justified past her auditory feel if the belief is not based in this experience. This would be the case, for example, if Phoebe has both the feel and the belief but is unaware of the fact that the music is produced by the speakers.

It is sometimes held that just propositional mental states tin play this role, a position known as "propositionalism".[12] [xv] A mental state is propositional if information technology is an attitude directed at a propositional content. Such attitudes are usually expressed by verbs similar "believe" together with a that-clause, every bit in "Robert believes that the corner shop sells milk".[16] [17] Such a view denies that sensory impressions can human activity every bit prove. This is often held as an argument confronting this view since sensory impressions are normally treated as evidence.[iii] [11] Propositionalism is sometimes combined with the view that only attitudes to true propositions tin can count every bit evidence.[12] On this view, the belief that the corner store sells milk merely constitutes evidence for the belief that the corner store sells dairy products if the corner shop actually sells milk. Against this position, it has been argued that evidence can be misleading but still count as evidence.[half-dozen] [4]

This line of thought is often combined with the idea that show, propositional or otherwise, determines what it is rational for us to believe.[iv] [iii] Merely it can exist rational to take a fake belief.[18] [xix] This is the case when we possess misleading evidence. For example, information technology was rational for Neo in the Matrix motion-picture show to believe that he was living in the 20th century because of all the evidence supporting his belief despite the fact that this evidence was misleading since it was function of a simulated reality. This account of evidence and rationality can also be extended to other doxastic attitudes, like atheism and suspension of conventionalities. So rationality does not only demand that we believe something if nosotros have decisive evidence for information technology, information technology also demands that we disbelieve something if nosotros have decisive evidence against it and that nosotros suspend belief if we lack decisive evidence either way.[4] [3] [half-dozen]

In philosophy of science [edit]

In the sciences, evidence is understood as what confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses.[3] [four] The term "confirmation" is sometimes used synonymously with that of "evidential support".[ten] Measurements of Mercury's "dissonant" orbit, for instance, are seen as prove that confirms Einstein'due south theory of general relativity. This is especially relevant for choosing between competing theories. Then in the case in a higher place, show plays the function of neutral arbiter between Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation.[4] This is simply possible if scientific evidence is public and uncontroversial and so that proponents of competing scientific theories concord on what bear witness is available. These requirements suggest scientific evidence consists not of individual mental states merely of public concrete objects or events.[4] [9]

Information technology is often held that evidence is in some sense prior to the hypotheses it confirms. This was sometimes understood as temporal priority, i.e. that we come up beginning to possess the prove and later form the hypothesis through induction. Merely this temporal order is not always reflected in scientific exercise, where experimental researchers may look for a specific slice of evidence in club to confirm or disconfirm a pre-existing hypothesis.[4] Logical positivists, on the other hand, held that this priority is semantic in nature, i.e. that the meanings of the theoretical terms used in the hypothesis are determined by what would count as show for them. Counterexamples for this view come from the fact that our thought of what counts equally evidence may change while the meanings of the respective theoretical terms remain constant.[4] The most plausible view is that this priority is epistemic in nature, i.east. that our belief in a hypothesis is justified based on the prove while the justification for the belief in the show does not depend on the hypothesis.[iv]

A central issue for the scientific conception of testify is the trouble of underdetermination, i.east. that the show available supports competing theories equally well.[twenty] [21] So, for example, prove from our everyday life about how gravity works confirms Newton'southward and Einstein'southward theory of gravitation equally well and is therefore unable to found consensus among scientists. But in such cases, it is oftentimes the gradual aggregating of evidence that eventually leads to an emerging consensus. This evidence-driven process towards consensus seems to exist ane hallmark of the sciences not shared by other fields.[4] [22]

Some other problem for the conception of evidence in terms of confirmation of hypotheses is that what some scientists consider the prove to exist may already involve various theoretical assumptions non shared by other scientists. This phenomenon is known equally theory-ladenness.[4] [23] Some cases of theory-ladenness are relatively uncontroversial, for example, that the numbers output by a measurement device demand additional assumptions about how this device works and what was measured in order to count as meaningful show.[24] Other putative cases are more controversial, for example, the idea that different people or cultures perceive the world through different, incommensurable conceptual schemes, leading them to very dissimilar impressions about what is the instance and what evidence is bachelor.[25] Theory-ladenness threatens to impede the role of evidence every bit neutral arbiter since these additional assumptions may favor some theories over others. It could thereby besides undermine a consensus to emerge since the different parties may be unable to hold even on what the evidence is.[4] [26] When understood in the widest sense, it is not controversial that some form of theory-ladenness exists. But it is questionable whether it constitutes a serious threat to scientific evidence when understood in this sense.[4]

Nature of the evidential relation [edit]

Philosophers in the 20th century started to investigate the "evidential relation", the relation between evidence and the proffer supported by it.[1] The issue of the nature of the evidential relation concerns the question of what this relation has to exist like in order for one thing to justify a conventionalities or to confirm a hypothesis.[10] Important theories in this field include the probabilistic approach, hypothetico-deductivism and the positive-example arroyo.[3] [27]

Probabilistic approaches, also referred to every bit Bayesian confirmation theory, explicate the evidential relation in terms of probabilities. They hold that all that is necessary is that the beingness of the evidence increases the likelihood that the hypothesis is true. This can be expressed mathematically as P ( H ∣ East ) > P ( H ) {\displaystyle P(H\mid E)>P(H)} .[28] [29] In words: a slice of bear witness (Eastward) confirms a hypothesis (H) if the provisional probability of this hypothesis relative to the evidence is higher than the unconditional probability of the hypothesis by itself.[30] Fume (E), for example, is evidence that there is a fire (H), because the two usually occur together, which is why the likelihood of fire given that in that location is smoke is higher than the likelihood of fire by itself. On this view, evidence is akin to an indicator or a symptom of the truth of the hypothesis.[6] Against this approach, it has been argued that it is too liberal because it allows accidental generalizations as evidence. Finding a nickel in i's pocket, for case, raises the probability of the hypothesis that "All the coins in my pockets are nickels". But, according to Alvin Goldman, it should not exist considered evidence for this hypothesis since at that place is no lawful connection between this one nickel and the other coins in the pocket.[4]

Hypothetico-deductivism is a not-probabilistic approach that characterizes the evidential relations in terms of deductive consequences of the hypothesis. According to this view, "evidence for a hypothesis is a truthful observational consequence of that hypothesis".[iii] [10] [31] [32] One problem with the characterization so far is that hypotheses ordinarily contain relatively trivial information and therefore have few if whatever deductive observational consequences. So the hypothesis by itself that there is a fire does not entail that smoke is observed. Instead, various auxiliary assumptions have to be included well-nigh the location of the fume, the fire, the observer, the lighting weather condition, the laws of chemistry, etc. In this way, the evidential relation becomes a three-place relation between evidence, hypothesis and auxiliary assumptions.[10] [33] This ways that whether a thing is testify for a hypothesis depends on the auxiliary assumptions one holds. This arroyo fits well with various scientific practices. For instance, it is frequently the example that experimental scientists try to observe evidence that would confirm or disconfirm a proposed theory. The hypothetico-deductive approach can be used to predict what should be observed in an experiment if the theory was true.[33] It thereby explains the evidential relation between the experiment and the theory.[x] One trouble with this approach is that it cannot distinguish between relevant and sure irrelevant cases. So if smoke is evidence for the hypothesis "in that location is fire", then information technology is also evidence for conjunctions including this hypothesis, for example, "in that location is burn down and Socrates was wise", despite the fact that Socrates's wisdom is irrelevant here.[3]

According to the positive-example arroyo, an observation judgement is evidence for a universal hypothesis if the judgement describes a positive instance of this hypothesis.[27] [34] [35] For case, the observation that "this swan is white" is an example of the universal hypothesis that "all swans are white". This approach tin exist given a precise formulation in first-order logic: a proposition is bear witness for a hypothesis if it entails the "development of the hypothesis".[3] [10] Intuitively, the development of the hypothesis is what the hypothesis states if it was restricted to only the individuals mentioned in the evidence. In the example above, we have the hypothesis " ∀ x ( south due west a n ( x ) → westward h i t e ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \forall x(swan(ten)\rightarrow white(x))} " (all swans are white) which, when restricted to the domain "{a}", containing just the 1 private mentioned in the evidence, entails the evidence, i.e. " southward due west a northward ( a ) ∧ w h i t e ( a ) {\displaystyle swan(a)\land white(a)} " (this swan is white).[3] [x] Ane of import shortcoming of this arroyo is that information technology requires that the hypothesis and the evidence are formulated in the aforementioned vocabulary, i.east. use the same predicates, like " due south w a n {\displaystyle swan} " or " w h i t e {\displaystyle white} " in a higher place. But many scientific theories posit theoretical objects, like electrons or strings in physics, that are not directly appreciable and therefore cannot prove upward in the evidence as conceived here.[3] [10]

Empirical prove (in scientific discipline) [edit]

In scientific research evidence is accumulated through observations of phenomena that occur in the natural world, or which are created as experiments in a laboratory or other controlled conditions. Scientists tend to focus on how the data used during statistical inference are generated.[i] Scientific evidence commonly goes towards supporting or rejecting a hypothesis.

The brunt of proof is on the person making a contentious claim. Within scientific discipline, this translates to the burden resting on presenters of a newspaper, in which the presenters fence for their specific findings. This paper is placed before a panel of judges where the presenter must defend the thesis against all challenges.

When evidence is contradictory to predicted expectations, the evidence and the ways of making it are often closely scrutinized (come across experimenter's regress) and only at the end of this process is the hypothesis rejected: this tin can be referred to every bit 'refutation of the hypothesis'. The rules for testify used past scientific discipline are collected systematically in an try to avert the bias inherent to anecdotal evidence.

Law [edit]

The remainder scales seen in depictions of Lady Justice tin can be seen equally representing the weighing of evidence in a legal proceeding.

In law, the production and presentation of testify depend showtime on establishing on whom the brunt of proof lies. Admissible evidence is that which a courtroom receives and considers for the purposes of deciding a item instance. 2 primary burden-of-proof considerations exist in law. The offset is on whom the burden rests. In many, especially Western, courts, the burden of proof is placed on the prosecution in criminal cases and the plaintiff in civil cases. The 2d consideration is the caste of certitude proof must reach, depending on both the quantity and quality of evidence. These degrees are different for criminal and civil cases, the onetime requiring show beyond a reasonable doubt, the latter considering simply which side has the preponderance of evidence, or whether the proffer is more likely true or false. The determination-maker, oftentimes a jury, but sometimes a judge decides whether the burden of proof has been fulfilled.

After deciding who will bear the brunt of proof, the evidence is get-go gathered and and so presented before the court:

Collection [edit]

An FBI Evidence Response Team gathering evidence by dusting an expanse for fingerprints

In a criminal investigation, rather than attempting to prove an abstract or hypothetical point, the testify gatherers attempt to determine who is responsible for a criminal act. The focus of criminal bear witness is to connect physical testify and reports of witnesses to a specific person.[36]

Presentation [edit]

The path that physical show takes from the scene of a criminal offense or the arrest of a doubtable to the courtroom is called the chain of custody. In a criminal case, this path must be clearly documented or attested to by those who handled the evidence. If the chain of bear witness is broken, a defendant may be able to persuade the gauge to declare the prove inadmissible.

Presenting evidence earlier the court differs from the gathering of prove in of import ways. Gathering bear witness may take many forms; presenting show that tends to prove or disprove the point at issue is strictly governed by rules. Failure to follow these rules leads to any number of consequences. In law, certain policies permit (or crave) evidence to be excluded from consideration based either on indicia relating to reliability, or broader social concerns. Testimony (which tells) and exhibits (which evidence) are the two main categories of evidence presented at a trial or hearing. In the United States, evidence in federal court is admitted or excluded under the Federal Rules of Evidence.[37]

Burden of proof [edit]

The burden of proof is the obligation of a political party in an argument or dispute to provide sufficient bear witness to shift the other political party'southward or a 3rd political party'southward belief from their initial position. The burden of proof must be fulfilled by both establishing confirming prove and negating oppositional evidence. Conclusions drawn from prove may be subject to criticism based on a perceived failure to fulfill the burden of proof.

Two master considerations are:

  1. On whom does the brunt of proof rest?
  2. To what degree of certitude must the assertion exist supported?

The latter question depends on the nature of the signal under contention and determines the quantity and quality of evidence required to encounter the burden of proof.

In a criminal trial in the United States, for instance, the prosecution carries the burden of proof since the accused is presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Similarly, in most civil procedures, the plaintiff carries the burden of proof and must convince a judge or jury that the preponderance of the show is on their side. Other legal standards of proof include "reasonable suspicion", "probable cause" (as for arrest), "prima facie bear witness", "apparent testify", "substantial bear witness", and "clear and disarming evidence".

In a philosophical debate, there is an implicit burden of proof on the party asserting a claim, since the default position is generally 1 of neutrality or unbelief. Each party in a debate will therefore bear the brunt of proof for whatsoever exclamation they make in the argument, although some assertions may be granted past the other party without further evidence. If the debate is set as a resolution to be supported past one side and refuted by another, the overall burden of proof is on the side supporting the resolution.

Specific types of prove [edit]

  • Digital evidence
  • Personal feel
  • Physical prove
  • Relationship evidence
  • Scientific show
  • Testimonial bear witness
  • Trace prove

Meet as well [edit]

  • Argument
  • Belief
  • Empiricism
  • Evidence packaging
  • Falsifiability
  • Logical positivism
  • Mathematical proof
  • Proof (truth)
  • Reason
  • Skepticism
  • Theory of justification
  • Validity (logic)

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c Mayo, Deborah G. (1 September 2000). "Experimental Practice and an Error Statistical Account of Evidence". Philosophy of Scientific discipline. 67: S193–S207. doi:ten.1086/392819. ISSN 0031-8248.
  2. ^ American College of Forensic Examiners Constitute. (2016). The Certified Criminal Investigator Body of Noesis. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN 978-1-4987-5206-0
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m northward o p DiFate, Victor. "Evidence". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved eleven June 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d due east f g h i j k fifty g n o p q r due south t u 5 Kelly, Thomas (2016). "Evidence". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
  5. ^ Ho, Hock Lai (2015). "The Legal Concept of Evidence". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved xi June 2021.
  6. ^ a b c d due east f g h i Conee, Earl; Feldman, Richard (2008). "Evidence". Epistemology: New Essays. Oxford University Press.
  7. ^ Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020). "Epistemology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Inquiry Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved fifteen June 2021.
  8. ^ Mittag, Daniel M. "Evidentialism". Cyberspace Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved fifteen June 2021.
  9. ^ a b c Cuff, Logan Paul (2014). "1. Introduction: Two Rival Conceptions of Bear witness". Objectivity and Subjectivity in Epistemology: A Defense of the Phenomenal Conception of Evidence (PhD Thesis). Baylor Academy.
  10. ^ a b c d east f g h i Crupi, Vincenzo (2021). "Confirmation". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Enquiry Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  11. ^ a b Huemer, Michael (2019). "Sense-Data". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Academy. Retrieved fifteen June 2021.
  12. ^ a b c Williamson, Timothy (2002). Evidence. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/019925656X.001.0001. ISBN978-0-nineteen-159867-eight.
  13. ^ Piazza, Tommaso (2009). "Evidentialism and the Trouble of Stored Beliefs". Philosophical Studies. 145 (2): 311–324. doi:10.1007/s11098-008-9233-1. S2CID 56299607.
  14. ^ Audi, Robert (2001). The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality. Oxford University Press. p. 19.
  15. ^ Dougherty, Trent (2011). "In Defense of Propositionalism about Evidence". Evidentialism and its Discontents. Oxford University Press. pp. 226–232. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563500.003.0015. ISBN978-0-19-172868-half dozen.
  16. ^ "Philosophy of mind - Propositional attitudes". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on xix July 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
  17. ^ Oppy, Graham. "Propositional attitudes". www.rep.routledge.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 2 Apr 2021.
  18. ^ Audi, Robert (2003). "Précis of the Architecture of Reason". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 67 (1): 177–180. doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2003.tb00031.x.
  19. ^ Audi, Robert. "The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews . Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  20. ^ Stanford, Kyle (2017). "Underdetermination of Scientific Theory". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  21. ^ "Philosophy of science - Underdetermination". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  22. ^ Lee, James Soo (Baronial 2017). "IV. Metaphysical Beliefs and Persisting Disagreement". A Metaphysician'southward User Guide: The Epistemology of Metaphysics (PhD thesis). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University.
  23. ^ Andersen, Hanne; Dark-green, Sara (2013). "Theory-Ladenness". Encyclopedia of Systems Biology. Springer. pp. 2165–2167. doi:10.1007/978-one-4419-9863-7_86. ISBN978-1-4419-9863-vii.
  24. ^ Boyd, Nora Mills; Bogen, James (2021). "Theory and Ascertainment in Science". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Inquiry Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved fifteen June 2021.
  25. ^ Oberheim, Eric; Hoyningen-Huene, Paul (2018). "The Incommensurability of Scientific Theories: 2.two.2 Conceptual replacement and theory-ladenness of observation: Ludwik Fleck". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  26. ^ Reiss, Julian; Sprenger, Jan (2020). "Scientific Objectivity". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved fifteen June 2021.
  27. ^ a b Dogan, Aysel (2005). "Confirmation of Scientific Hypotheses as Relations". Periodical for General Philosophy of Science. 36 (ii): 243–259. doi:10.1007/s10838-006-1065-0. S2CID 120030170.
  28. ^ Talbott, William (2016). "Bayesian Epistemology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved xiv June 2021.
  29. ^ Franklin, James (2011). "The objective Bayesian conceptualisation of proof and reference form issues". Sydney Law Review. 33: 545–561. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  30. ^ Huber, Franz. "Confirmation and Induction". Cyberspace Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  31. ^ "hypothetico-deductive method". Oxford Reference . Retrieved xv June 2021.
  32. ^ "hypothetico-deductive method". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  33. ^ a b Folde, Christian (1 March 2016). "Interpretation and the Hypothetico-Deductive Method: A Dilemma". Journal of Literary Theory. x (ane): 58–82. doi:x.1515/jlt-2016-0003. ISSN 1862-8990. S2CID 147343629.
  34. ^ Culler, Madison (1995). "Beyond Bootstrapping: A New Account of Evidential Relevance". Philosophy of Science. 62 (four): 561–579. doi:ten.1086/289886. S2CID 121195603.
  35. ^ Stemmer, Nathan (1981). "The Objective Confirmation of Hypotheses". Canadian Journal of Philosophy. eleven (three): 395–404. doi:10.1080/00455091.1981.10716311.
  36. ^ Roscoe, H.; Granger, T.C. (1840). A Digest of the Law of Show in Criminal Cases. p. 9. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  37. ^ "Federal Rules of Evidence 2008". Federal Evidence Review. Archived from the original on 19 August 2010. Retrieved eighteen July 2008.

External links [edit]

  • Prove at PhilPapers
  • Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Evidence". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • "Evidence". Net Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Show at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Projection
  • ASTM E141 Standard Practice for Acceptance of Evidence Based on the Results of Probability Sampling
  • "Evidence". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence

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